Humanistic Theory According To Abraham Maslow Education Essay

Humanistic Theory According To Abraham Maslow Education Essay This is the psychological perspective popularized by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow that emphasizes the human capacity for choice and growth. The overriding assumption is that humans have free will and are not simply fated to behave in specific ways or are zombies blindly reacting to their environment. The humanists stated that the subject matter or psychology is the human subjective experience of the world how human experience things, why they experience things, etc. Humanistic psychologists look at human behavior not only through the eyes of the observer, but through the eyes of the person doing the behaving. Humanistic psychologists believe that an individuals behavior is connected to his inner feelings and self-image. Unlike the behaviorists, humanistic psychologists believe that humans are not solely the product of their environment. Rather humanistic psychologists study human meanings, understandings, and experiences involved in growing, teaching and learning. They emphasize characteristics that are shared by all human beings such as love, grief, caring and self worth. Humanistic psychologists study how people are influenced by their self-perceptions and the person meanings attached to their experiences. Humanistic psychologists are not primarily concerned with instinctual drives, responses to external stimuli, or past experiences. Rather, they consider conscious choices, responses to internal needs, and current circumstances to be important in shaping human behavior. Humanistic theory is based upon the idea that everyone has the potential to make a contribution to society and be a good and likeable person if their needs are fulfilled. Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers led the humanistic theory movement and it was Maslow who developed the pyramid of needs. Maslow believed that fulfilling the needs in the correct order would allow individuals to become self actualised, fully able persons. So only after the basic physiological needs such as food, shelter, warmth are met can individuals move on to the next stages; the need to feel secure, to be loved and accepted etc. Maslow developed his theory not by studying mentally ill patients, which is where much psychological knowledge had derived from up to that point, but by studying healthy, productive, creative individuals lives and careers. He concluded that there were common characteristics which were shared by successful individuals including self acceptance, openness and respect for other individuals. Carl Rogers felt that, in addition to Maslows hierarchical needs, in order for a person to develop fully that they needed to be in an environment which would provide them with genuineness, acceptance and empathy and that without such a nourishing environment healthy personalities and relationships would be unable to flourish. Humanistic theory is basically about the development of the individual. It was very popular in the 1970s but seems to be slightly out of favour today as Western nations have generally moved slightly towards the political right and there is more emphasis on conforming and contributing to, a slightly more conservative society. Of course, whilst humanistic theory does have a very strong focus on the individual, it is based upon the belief that well developed, successful individuals are best placed to make a positive contribution to society. Humanistic theory suggests that the achievement of happiness is frequently dependent upon achieving, or giving yourself the licence to, investigate and pursue your own deepest interests and desires. Humanistic Theory according to Abraham Maslow Abraham Maslow has been considered the Father of Humanistic Psychology. Maslows theory is based on the notion that experience is the primary phenomenon in the study of human learning and behavior. He placed emphasis on choice, creativity, values, self-realization, all distinctively human qualities, and believed that meaningfulness and subjectivity were more important than objectivity. For Maslow, development of human potential, dignity and worth are ultimate concerns. Maslow rejected behaviorist views and Freuds theories on the basis of their reductionistic approaches. He felt Freuds view of human nature was negative, and he valued goodness, nobility and reason. Also, Freud concentrated on the mentally ill, and Maslow was interested in healthy human psychology. Maslow and his colleagues came to refer to their movement as third force psychology, the first two being psychoanalysis and behaviorism. The third force is based on philosophies of existentialism and humanism. He is famous for proposing that human motivation is based on a hierarchy of needs. The lowest level of needs are physiological and survival needs such as hunger and thirst. Further levels include belonging and love, self-esteem, and self-actualization. From Maslows perspective, the drive to learn is intrinsic. The purpose of learning is to bring about self-actualization, and the goals of educators should include this process. Learning contributes to psychological health. Maslow proposed other goals of learning, including discovery of ones vocation or destiny; knowledge of values; realization of life as precious, acquisition of peak experiences, sense of accomplishment, satisfaction of psychological needs, awareness of beauty and wonder in life, impulse control, developing choice, and grappling with the critical existential problems of life. Maslows theory of learning highlighted the differences between experiential knowledge and spectator knowledge. He regarded spectator, or scientific, knowledge to be inferior to experiential. Properties of experiential learning include: immersion in the experience without awareness of the flow of time momentarily not being self-conscious transcending time, place, history, and society by being beyond and unaffected by them merging with that which is being experienced being innocently receptive, as a child, uncritical suspending temporarily evaluation of the experience in terms of its importance or unimportance lack of inhibition, subsiding of selfishness, fear, defensiveness experience unfolds naturally without striving or effort suspending criticism, validation, and evaluation of the experience trusting experience by passively letting it happen; letting go of preconceived notions disengaging from logical, analytical, and rational activities Maslows Hierarchy of Needs Physiological Needs They consist of needs for oxygen, food, water, and a relatively constant body temperature. They are the strongest needs because if a person were deprived of all needs, the physiological ones would come first in the persons search for satisfaction. We need these for basic survival. Maslows theory said that you need to satisfy first the basic needs like Physiological needs and Safety needs, to get motivation to truly attain the higher-level needs like social needs and esteem. Safety Needs When all physiological needs are satisfied and no longer dominating our thoughts and behaviors, we progress to safety needs. A persons attention turns to safety and security for himself/ herself to be free from the threat of physical and emotional harm. Such needs might be fulfilled by: Living in a safe area Medical insurance Job security Financial reserves These include the need for security. We often have little awareness of these, except in times of emergency disorganization in social structure (war time, terrorist acts, domestic violence, natural disasters). Maslows hierarchy said that, if a person feels that he or she is in harms way, higher needs would not be attained that quickly. Belongingness Love needs When a person has attained the lower level like Physiological and Safety needs, higher level needs become important, the first of which are social needs. Social needs are those related to interaction with other people like: Need for friends Need for belonging Need to give and receive love When safety and physiological needs are met, we desire, to be loved by others and to belong. Maslow states that people seek to overcome feelings of loneliness alienation. This involves both giving receiving love, affection the sense of belonging (family, friends, social groups). Esteem Needs After the first 3 classes of needs are met, the needs for esteem can become dominant. These involve needs for both self-esteem for the esteem a person gets from others. Esteem needs may be classified as internal or external. Self respect and achievement are some examples of Internal esteem needs. Social status and recognition are some examples of External esteem needs. Some esteem needs are: Self-respect Achievement Attention Recognition Reputation Humans have a need for a stable, firmly based, high level of self-respect, respect from others. When these needs are satisfied, the person feels self-confident valuable as a person in the world. When these needs are frustrated, the person feels inferior, weak, helpless worthless. Need for Self-Actualization When all of the foregoing needs are satisfied, then only then are the needs for self-actualization activated. The last necessity is the Self Actualization or Fulfillment Needs. This includes purposed, personal growth, and the full realization of ones potentials. This is the point where people start becoming fully functional, acting purely on their own volition, and having a healthy personality. Maslow describes self-actualization as a persons need to be do that which the person was born to do. A musician must make music, an artist must paint, and a poet must write. These needs make themselves felt in signs of restlessness (person feels edgy, tense, lacking something, restless.) The person must be true to his or her own nature, be what you are meant to be. Maslow believed that very few people reach the state of self-actualization. Although we all have the need to move toward the goal of reaching our full potential, other needs may get in the way. Misconceptions about Maslows Hierarchy of Needs Maslow himself agreed that his 5-level need hierarchy oversimplifies the relationship between needs behavior. The order of needs makes sense for most of us, though there may be some notable exceptions (e.g., some people need to satisfy their needs for self-esteem respect before they can enter a love relationship). We may so desire fulfilling a need that we sacrifice others below it. For example, a person with a passion for acting might sacrifice his or her hunger, which is one of physiological needs, to pursue a career in acting even though the payment is barely enough and struggling to live while trying to make a name for themselves in the business. Maslow was interested in studying people who are psychologically healthy. These were people who had become self-actualized. He interviewed these people to see how they were able to satisfy all of the needs on the hierarchy. He conducted what he called a holistic analysis in which he sought general impressions from his efforts to understand these people in depth. What are Self-Actualized People Like? They tend to accept themselves for what they are. They freely admit their weaknesses, but do make attempts to improve. They dont worry excessively over the mistakes they have made, but instead focus on improving. They respect feel good about themselves. However, this self love is healthy not narcissistic. They are less restricted by cultural norms than the average person. They feel free to express their desires, even if contrary to the popular view. These people have frequent peak experiences, in which time place are transcended, anxieties are lost, a unity of self with the universe is obtained (birth of a child, marriage, deciding to go to school). Humanistic Theory according to Carl Rogers Carl Rogers was a central figure in the humanistic movement of personality psychology. He lived from 1902 till 1987. In the span of his life, he was an instrumental figure in the understanding of the individual as a central point of the study of human potential. He believed that within each individual lies an innate desire and motivation to learn in order to progress to a higher level of achievement and self-development. Both Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers work became popularly known in the mid-1980s as the human potential movement. This categorization of their work became the ground where psychologists used their conceptual framework to study the impact on ones personality as well as in the field of education, among others. One of his famous quotes epitomized his conceptual framework, The only person who is educated is the one who has learned how to learn and change. This quotation reflected his theoretical conception that people must be able to create a learning curve that will enable them to change towards a new chapter in their self-development. According to Rogers (1951), people can be tuned to learn to unlock themselves from an environment that constricts their potential because of preconceived notions of how they should be. Rogers believed that people who are restricted by their perception of the environment in which they exist in have a debilitating effect on how they may view their potential. However, if an individual is able to overcome the faulty perception(s) of the environment, and learn to acknowledge the potential to grow, then the individual may initiate steps as well as processes towards this end. Rogers strongly advocated that a growing individual is on where he or she is aware of a progress of ongoing internal change, and an acceptance of oneself. Rogers further emphasized that individuals will inevitably experience positive development if they are exposed to supportive environmental condition. By his understanding of supportive environmental condition, Rogers believed that social factors contribute to positive development. Rogers (1982), quoted by Pfaffenberger. A, 2007, p 508, emphatically stated that in his opinion, all humans will display compassion and cooperation if they are provided with the appropriate environmental supports. Therefore, Rogers was of the view that learning in a supportive environmental condition was crucial to the development of oneself. In a much later publication, Rogers (1982) also placed emphasis on growth-enhancing relationships that facilitate inner awareness and congruence which allowed motivation of effort towards a certain objective. Rogers postulated that relationships that provide for an awareness of oneself in differing situations can lead to personal growth. For example, if a child learns that he or she is nurtured in a caring family and with acceptance (relationship factor), he or she is more adapted to see situational variables (such as studies, or skill based acquisition) as motivation towards achieving objectives. However, it is notable that this presumption of Rogers may be faulty because it is argued that situational variables can also work to the detriment of the individual. In contrast, Abraham Maslow (1968) explicitly acknowledged that difficult circumstances can also be growth-enhancing. Much research had been conducted to investigate how growth-enhancing relationships and situational variables may trigger different affect. One of the more definitive studies was conducted by L. King (2001), (quoted by Pfaffenberger. A, 2007, p 510). In this study, King investigated the influence of challenging and limiting life events on personality development as measured by Loevingers (1976) SCT Sentence Completion Test. The study concluded that cognitive abilities and personality structures interact with life circumstances, and that the nature of this interaction is relevant to whether growth occurs (p, 511). This study also supports Rollo Mays (1958) theory of existential therapy, where clients are taught to constructively work with their limitations and to create freedom so that they can choose values, meanings, and their levels of commitment. Theoretical orientations of Rogers humanistic concept: The humanistic orientation of Rogers theory can be essentially encapsulated using two (2) theories. The two (2) theories are the person-centred personality theory and the self-determination theory. Person-centred theory For almost fifty (50) years since his earlier publication of A Theory of Therapy, Personality and Interpersonal Relationships, developed under the Client-centred Framework, Rogers (1959), the person-centred movement and client-centred approach towards counselling and psycho-therapy are also generalized to other fields of knowledge. The crux of the person-centred personality theory is the assumption that human beings have an inherent tendency towards growth, development, and optimal functioning. According to Rogers (1959), quoted by Patterson and Joseph, 2007, p 120, the person-centred approach offers a dynamic, process-focused account of personality development and functioning,à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ What this means is that, every human is born with an innate motivational drive, known as the actualizing tendency. Actualizing tendency is defined by Rogers (1959) as, the inherent tendency of the organism to develop all of its capacities in ways which serve to maintain or enhance the organismà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦development towards autonomy and away from heteronomy, or control by external forces. (p 196) (Quoted by Patterson and Joseph, 2007, p 120) Every individual possesses some capacity that allows him or her to realize the inherent potential within. One of the key implications of Rogers actualizing tendency lies in how individuals undertake to bring out the potential. According to Rogers, the impact of the environmental conditions is a determining factor. Under favourable social-environmental conditions, Rogers proposed that the individuals self-concept actualizes in accordance with his or her organismic valuing process (OVP). The OVP refers to the evaluation of experiences in a manner consistent with ones intrinsic needs: Rogers summed it by declaring that, the human infant is seen as having an inherent motivational system and a regulatory system (the valuing process) which by its feedback keeps the organism on the beam of satisfying his motivational needs. (Rogers, 1959, p 222). Even from young, every individual is keen to fulfil some of his or her intrinsic needs; those that are not dependent on externalities or due to any prior learning. An example is how children recognize the importance of exploration whilst learning and/or playing. In the process, children discover more about themselves, about the environment, about others and about life in general. As children learn to correlate these experiences into their organization of self-concept, they begin to instil a sense of their OVP learning to evaluate the experiences based on their intrinsic needs. The concept of OVP is important to the central theme of Rogers theoretical framework. Important to Rogers understanding is his (1957) terminology of a fully functioning person an ideal of autonomous psychological functioning that occurs when self-actualization is organismically congruent. This concept is similar to Maslow (1970) and presupposes that individuals must firstly satisfy their most fundamental needs. In his later works, Rogers (1963 and 1964) proposed that the attitudes and behaviours of more fully functioning individuals are consistent with certain internally generated value directions. The value directions include moving toward increasingly socialized goals, where sensitivity to others and acceptance of others is positively valued and where deep relationships are positively valued, and moving in the direction of greater openness to experience, where the person comes to value an openness to all of his or her inner and outer experience ( Rogers, 1964, p 166). Rogers acknowledged that conditions or the social-environmental factors are not always ideal for the emergence of a fully functioning person. Situations like this give rise to a state of incongruence. There is a state of tension and internal confusion. When an unfavourable social environment is present, the actualizing tendency is thwarted, Rogers (1959). The actualizing tendency is compromised by the conditions of worth. Conditions of worth are conceptualized as the values that are introjected by the individual from his or her social interactions and that stem from the developing infants need for positive regard from significant others in his or her social environment. In this respect, if an infant receives positive regard that is conditional, then he or she learns to evaluate experiences according to whether or not they satisfy the externally imposed conditions. As the child develops, the conditions of worth are introjected, meaning that they act as an internalized social order and replacing organismic valuing as the principle governing the individuals attitudes and behaviour. Self-Determination Theory This is a contemporary organismic theory formulated by Deci, E.L and Ryan, R. M, (1985, 1991, 2000) that focused on motivation and personality functioning that emphasizes the central rule of the individuals inner resources for personality development and behavioural self-regulation. This theory is similar to the person-centred theory in that self-determination theory views the individual as an active growth-oriented organism, attempting to actualize his or her potentialities within the environment in which he or she functions. A summary of the self-determination theory carries the following elements: Human beings are inherently proactive; have potential to act on and master both the inner forces and the external, Human beings, as self-organizing systems, have an inherent tendency toward growth, development, and integrated functioning, For people to actualize their inherent nature and potentials, people require nutrients from the social environment. Adapted from Deci and Vansteenkiste, 2004, pp 23-24, (quoted by Patterson and Joseph, 2007, p 124) In self-determination theory, one of the major sources of motivation and/or OVP is the recognition whether the behaviour is intrinsically or extrinsically motivated. Intrinsic motivation/regulation is equivalent to acting in accordance with OVP. At the same time, there are three (3) subcategories of extrinsic motivation that may account for extrinsic regulations. Perceived locus of causality/ Locus of evaluation describe the individuals perception as to whether the motivation is located internally or externally = person-centred construct of locus of evaluation (Rogers, 1959), Basic needs/ Necessary and Sufficient conditions need for competence, relatedness, and autonomy; essential for facilitating psychological growth and integration, social development, and personal well-being. Competence refers to our need to control outcomes, and to be efficacious in our environment, autonomy refers to the individuals attempts to be a self-determining agent of his or her own attitudes and behaviour, while relatedness describes the urge to be in relationship with others, caring for others, and being cared for by others. Self-determination theory hypothesized that, for the individual to experience an ongoing sense of integrity and well-being, each of these three basic needs must be met throughout the life-span. This hypothesis supports the contention that certain, social-environmental conditions nurture self-regulation based on organismic valuing and lead to a process of growth and change in the direction of healthy functioning and psychological well-being. Contingent Self-Esteem/Conditional Self-Regard refers to the influence of people viewed as significant others (Deci Ryan, 1995; Ryan Brown, 2003). This is similar to the person-centred view of conditional self-regard. There exists a great amount of similarities between the person-centred and the self-determination theory. Both theories postulate that the path to psychological well-being involves following an innate guidance mechanism. This understanding is important to the field of learning because each individual has a different subset of characteristics that may promote and/or hinder learning. In this respect, knowing what triggers effective learning, providing conducive environment, taking into account an individuals OVP, social factors, as well as structuring the curriculum are necessary to enhance the optimal level of learning. Humanistic theory proposed understanding humans as a state of being, a dynamic and ever-changing situation where each individual is seen as always striving to fulfil the potential within. APPLICATION IN EDUCATION In the field of education, humanistic theory grants educators important conceptual understanding about the role of learners. From Maslow and Rogers, educators have a better insight into the elements of learners style and dimensions of absorption of knowledge and utilization of skills and abilities. In his paper, Humanistic Self-Instruction, the author, R. Craig Hogan (1978) suggested that instructors/educators should demonstrate their appreciation and value of the individual learners by viewing them as objects that have unique and specific needs. The negative implications of treating the learners as empty jars or blank slates is that many instructors/educators feel that learners are passive receivers only; filling the learners as the instructors/educators wish. This negative implications are serious to warrant attention as instructors/educators may force learners to be receptive and have no obligation whatsoever to consider his or her individuality and autonomy in learning. According to Chris Argyris, in his book, Intervention Theory and Method: A Behavioural Science View, 1970, pp 15-16, we see them (learners) and they see themselves as autonomous, responsible individuals committed to the direction the intervention is taking, making free choices based on sufficient valid information about the means and ends. It is a common error that most instructors/educators as well as educational institutions assume that learners need to be instructed as to their learning. This assumption works on the premise that effective learning must follow certain syllabus, instructional method(s) and assessment grading. The education system in most countries is mostly rigid; built along the tried and tested formula of the existing structure of instructed teaching. In cases such as these, the classroom may contain students of varying levels of interest, self-management skill, independence versus dependent minded, industrious versus sluggard and bright as well as lesser bright ones. The methodology of teaching would be uniform across all All are fed the same the same fare at the same rate in the same way. The classroom atmosphere suppresses individuality, autonomy, and freedom by stifling students initiative to manage their own learning at every level of responsibility. Self-directed learning is minimized (Hogan, 1978, pp 262-263) Combination of group contingencies and cooperative learning in adopting humanistic principles The conceptual understanding of group contingencies is that it is primarily derived from behavioural learning theory (Bandura, 1969). The theory behind group contingencies is that a group is rewarded if it collectively meets some standard; and the members of the group apply social sanctions to one another to encourage group members to do what is necessary to ensure that the group will be successful (Slavin 1987). Group contingencies are also workable if the reward/sanction is used in tangent to the efforts of individual member of the group. This creates a situation where each individual makes him or herself liable and responsible for the success of the group. In this, the humanist tendencies are activated in each of the individual. Cooperative learning refers to a set of instructional methods in which students are encouraged or required to work together on academic tasks. Cooperative learning methods may be as simple as having students sit together to discuss or help one another with classroom tasks. Rewards may be offered; as in group contingencies but are not essential (Slavin, 1987, p 31). An aspect of cooperative learning that is vital is the element of peer interaction. The quality of the peer interaction determines the extent of the learning and the success of the completion of tasks. The effectiveness of cooperative learning is best seen in two (2) studies (Hulten DeVries, 1976; Slavin, 1980) which found that providing recognition to student teams based on the sum of their individual learning increased student achievement even if students were not permitted to interact in class. In the same vein, a German study, (Huber, Bogatzki, Winter, 1982) found that providing students an opportunity to study together did not increase their achievement, but adding group rewards based on individual learning did lead to enhanced achievement. (Slavin, 1987, p 33) Therefore, the researches listed above clearly supports the position that cooperative reward structures, or group contingencies, based on individual learning of group members are necessary for the success of these methods in improving student achievement. Peer interaction is also found to be important to the success of cooperative strategies. [Webb, (1985), Peterson Janicki, (1979)] Students are motivated to engage in elaborated, cognitively involving explanations and discussions if the learning of their group mates is made important by the provision of group rewards based on individual learning performances (Slavin, 1983). One of the important findings of Slavins study has found positive effects of cooperative learning non race relations, attitudes, self-esteem and other non-academic outcomes (1983). Humanistic understanding of education is not specifically confined to the individual per se but rather emphasizes on how learners/students are able to gain the right concept of themselves and pursue towards growth. In this, cooperative learning has a major role if the outcomes point to similar outcomes. Humanistic theory and learning in Adult Education Humanistic application is most seen in adult learning. For most adults, the adage of more is caught than taught is true. According to a paper presentation by Jackson, Sanetta. George, Cooks, Alyce; Hackney, Darwyn; Stevens, Claude; and Zumwait, Dave, (2002), this adage refers to the informal and incidental learning that takes place on a daily basis and in most situations. In these situations, the learning revolves around human relationships. It is common knowledge that the psychological learning environment of adults and non-adults are significantly different. By virtue of adults ability to make decisions regarding their personal growth and development; especially in learning, humanistic theory provides for a deeper insight into understanding the psychological learning environment of adults. The psychological learning environment is defined as creating a climate in which both learners and teachers are able to engage in genuine exchange. (Jackson, et.al) For teachers, this means that learners need to feel a sense of welcome and at ease, attending to the fears and doubts that adult

Reconstruction In The South :: American History Civil War

Reconstruction in the South This essay will describe the events that occurred following the Civil War in a period known as Reconstruction. In the South, during this period of time many people suffered from the great amount of property damage done to such things as farms, factories, railroads and several other things that citizens depended on to keep their economy strong. Some of these economic hardships included destruction of the credit system and worthless Confederate money. Though statistics in the South were vague the historian E.B. Long, a careful student of war strengths suggests "perhaps 750,000 individuals would be reasonably a close" as an estimate of Southern enrollments in the armies and navy. In the South Reconstruction meant rebuilding the economy, establishing new state and local governments and establishing a new social structure between whites and blacks. During the war Lincoln had expanded his presidency. With his power he hoped to set up loyal governments in the Southern states that were under Union control. Lincoln appointed new temporary governors and instructed each to call a convention to create a new state government as soon as a group of the state's citizen totaling 10 percent of the voters in the 1860 presidential election had signed oaths of loyalty to the Union. Under this plan new governments were formed in Louisiana, Tennessee and Arkansas but the Congress refused to recognize them. Republicans in Congress did not want a quick restoration, for the reason that it would bring Democratic representatives and senators to Washington, and in 1864 Congress passed the Wade-Davis Reconstruction Bill. This bill would have delayed the process of rejoining the Union until 50 percent of the people took an oath of loyalty but Lincoln pocket vetoed the bill. Abraham Lincoln was assassinated just as the South surrendered in April 1865, and then Andrew Johnson inherited the problem of Reconstruction. Johnson supported Lincoln's plan after taking office. Enough Confederates signed these oaths to enable the immediate creation of new governments. Johnson required that the new states ratify the 13th Amendment freeing the slaves, abolish slavery in their own constitutions, discard debts incurred while in rebellion, and declare secession null and void. By the end of 1865 all of the secessionist states but Texas had rejoined the Union. Radical Republicans in Congress thought they should control Reconstruction and wished to punish the South for causing the Civil War. Some of these Republicans wished to create a Southern society where blacks and whites were equal. These Republicans opposed the Southern "Black Codes." Black Codes were harsh local and state laws passed to control blacks in the South after the

Genetic Information Essay

The goal of this essay is to determine whether the information presented within it could be considered a violation or a non-violation of the GINA of 2008. A case study has been determined to be a method to learn about a complex instance. This information is based on understanding the detailed instance and analyzing the context as a whole. I will be briefly discussing this case study. The GINA legislation had unanimous support when it was signed into law by President Bush. This case study is broken down into many different stories that focus on GINA. The Act was voted into Congress in 2008 (Hudson, Holohan, & Collins, 2014). Case studies also describes an analyses of persons, events, decisions, periods, projects, policies, institutions, or other systems that are studied. GINA is being described as promoting genetic research and preventive screening, safeguard medical privacy, and prevent unfair treatment of individuals based on traits that are linked to diseases (Hudson, Holohan, Coll ins, 2014). There was talk about the threat that arises from the Supreme Court’s federalism revolution of 1995-2001. Chief Justice Rehnquist took greater strides in placing a limit on the power of Congress. These rules affected the Tenth, Eleventh, and Fourteenth Amendments along with the Commerce Clause that would balance the power of the state and federal (Tobin, 2008). It is stated in the fact sheet that â€Å"GINA expands the genetic information protections included in the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA). HIPAA prevents a plan or issuer from imposing a preexisting condition exclusion provision based solely on genetic information, and prohibits discrimination in individual eligibility, benefits, or premiums based on any health factor (including genetic information)† (United States Department of Labor, 2009). Surveys was taken from 50 states that relied on the Bureau of Labor Statistics. These surveys showed disparities in private sector leave and  gender differences. Arguments are made over the distinction based on the level of scrutiny (Tobin, 2008). GINA was first introduced in 1995 in response to concerns about the misuse of information regarding genetic predispositions to various diseases. The bill sought to help those that was applying for insurance to keep them from being denied. According to GINA the analysis went wrong in some aspect of employment. The Supreme Court’s Section 5 jurisprudence insofar as they provide remedies for state employees (Tobin, 2008). It is also unlawful for a covered entity to disclose genetic information about applicants, employees or members. Covered entities must keep genetic information confidential and in a separate medical file (Tobin, 2008). There are limited exceptions to this non-disclosure rule, such as exceptions that provide for the disclosure of relevant genetic information to government officials investigating compliance with Title II of GINA and for disclosures made pursuant to a court order (Tobin, 2008). When it comes down to any type of employment the law forbids discrimination on the basis of genetic information which include hiring, firing, pay, job assignments, promotions, layoffs, training, fringe benefits, or any other type of employment. An employer should never use genetic information to make an employment decision because genetic information is not relevant to an individual’s ability to work at any time (Tobin, 2008). A goal of the policy is to protect equality and privacy of an employer that lose their jobs as a result to genetic testing. According to Kimel and Garrett evidence that Congress collected is of no concern because it’s only in the private sector and not by state. Some states argued that being flexible to GINA is not consistent with the Court’s (Tobin, 2008). Instances in these cases shows the analysis of the areas that are considered too went wrong with GINA. For instance, courts need to apply heightened constitutional scrutiny to genetic discrimination. This will keep states from arguing against them and win stating its insufficient data. Another examples is there is a strong case for abrogating sovereign immunity in those cases where employers rely on the information that is took from genetic testing that has been linked to racial or ethnic backgrounds. The last reason is the provisions that uphold GINA’S privacy in 5 legislations has an uncertainty about it not being strong enough to work against state  employment. The Voting Rights Act Reauthorization Act was created in 2006 to place jurisdictions on the voting history of racial discrimination. The research from this act allowed congress to take action towards making decisions on these issues. Approval would have to come from the attorney General or a federal court. This pro vision help minority voters the ability to vote and make their voice heard through the election process (Tobin, 2008). Another concern was about racial profiling policies and procedures that needed to be changed to prohibit police from unjustly stereotyping individuals (Tobin, 2008). This bill called End Racial Profiling Act was entered into the legislations by Rep. John Conyers and Sen. Russ Feingold in 2001. The courts shouldn’t have invalidated the civil rights as it did because it didn’t put enough force on change for minorities. It has hesitantly enforced the rights of persecuted minorities and in many ways it has changed the face of the United States law and politics. I determined that GINA has been cited as a strong step forward, but I believe that the legislation does not go far enough in enabling personal control over genetic testing results. In conclusion, these cases have changed the livelihood of many people but more need to be done for better congressional. Some Courts have supported equal right while other decisions have hindered them. References Tobin, H. (2008). The Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act of 2008: A Case Study of the Need For Better Congressional Responses to Federalism Jurisprudence. Retrieved from Ashford University. Hudson, K., Holohan, M. K., & Collins, F. (2014). Keeping Pace with the Times – The Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act of 2008. Retrieved from http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMp0803964 United States Department of Labor (2009). Fact Sheet. Retrieved from http://www.dol.gov/ebsa/newsroom/fsGINA.html

The Technology Of The Digital Generation Better Than The Meme

Introduction: Perhaps no digital phenomenon can encapsulate the culture of the digital generation better than the meme. The proliferation of social media outlets has made it possible for humourous, insightful, or otherwise interesting content to spread throughout the web virally. Funny image macros like â€Å"Advice Dog† and â€Å"Rage Comics† circulate through networks, from person to person, to amuse. The idea of the meme has been around long before the conception of the internet, originating from a text on evolutionary biology; unfortunately, the copious use of the word meme on the internet has led to both the misuse of the term as well as a reluctance to utilise the word in academic discourse by some authors. This website is intended to†¦show more content†¦The study of memetics was created to explore how ideas are transferred from one mind to another and the analysis of memes has become a large part of modern anthropomorphology. Ideologies Are Fundamentally Memetic: The values people hold are not defined by nature, but by exposure to and judgement of the world. It is because of this that the values of others act as influences on the ones which we hold personally and ideologies are born when people share the same worldview. These ideologies can spread virally or not, but are always transferred memetically, as they change and evolve as they get passed around to, judged by, and evaluated by, different people. It is because of this that we can see that ideologies are fundamentally memetic constructs and this is but one example of sophisticated use of the idea of the meme which validates its assimilation into the dictionary of academic prose. What Is Marxism? Karl Marx has become one of the most divisive figures in all of human history and he is definitely one of the most influential men to ever live. For years after the publishing of his most enduring work, The Communist Manifesto, Marxist principles changed not just the economy of some of the world’s greatest political powers, but the tone and subject matter of many literary and other artistic works. The popularisation and, largely, the